A number of strain sensor technologies exist that apply to a wide variety of commercial, military, and industrial markets. Resistance strain gages have been the most widely used in the past, and are the most readily available technology at this time. A variety of configurations are available, including those with limited temperature compensation and endurance to harsh environments. However, the inherent disadvantages of resistance strain gages, including installation costs, complexity, weight, long-term measurement drift, susceptibility to electromagnetic noise, and dangers from electrical power requirements, have limited their application in certain fields.
More recently, a new variety of strain sensors have been developed based on fiber optic technology, such as extrinsic Fabry-Perots, in-line fiber etalons, intrinsic Fabry-Perots and Bragg gratings. All of these optical sensors share a common property in which imposed strains on the respective sensor portion of optical fibers alter the transmitted electromagnetic spectrum in a manner that can be detected and measured by optical interrogation instrumentation. This optical sensor technology has overcome many of the difficulties inherent in resistance strain gages and electrical transmission networks. Among the many advantages are:
Accuracy: Optical sensors are self-referencing, with virtually unlimited resolution. This means that measurements are absolute, providing long-term stability that does not require frequent sensor calibration or bridge balancing as required with resistance gage technology. In addition, because these sensors are optical in nature, they do not emit electromagnetic noise and are themselves not susceptible to electromagnetic interference from other electrical systems.
Safety: Optical fiber sensors cannot generate sparks or other forms of heat that might cause unwanted fires or explosions in the presence of fuels or other combustible sources.
Reliability: The mechanical strength of optical fibers has been found to approach three times that of the strongest carbon steel. Hermetic coated fibers are immune to corrosion and do not induce corrosion on metals. In addition, environmental tests conducted to date suggest that temperature and humidity have limited influence of the optical characteristics of Bragg gratings.
Weight and Space Savings: Compared with copper wires used in conventional sensing systems, optical fibers are four times lighter per unit volume and provide greater than ten thousand times more signal bandwidth in a smaller cross section.
Within the past two decades, a number of manufacturers have attempted to exploit this fiber optic sensor technology, with limited results. The costs associated with the electronic and optical systems required to interrogate the fiber optic sensors were prohibitively high for most applications. Application of fiber optic technology to the growing telecommunications industry has greatly mitigated this problem. The drive to multiplex as many communications channels within a single data path as possible has revolutionized the telecommunications industry, and further developments are expected to increase multiplexing capability by orders of magnitude in the future. This will be accompanied by constant improvements in the performance and reliability of optical fiber components, while at the same time, reducing costs. This multiplexing capability will for the first time allow for a high density of strain sensors to be implemented in a single optical network, thus permitting a large distributed sensing capability as required by such emerging areas as the structural health monitoring field.
A key characteristic that has limited the application of fiber optic strain sensors is their inherent sensitivity to temperature variations. This sensitivity makes measurements due to thermal variations indistinguishable from mechanical strain measurements. The temperature sensitivity of fiber optic sensors will continue to limit their application to most fields, unless additional means are implemented to compensate for temperature variations. Some applications of fiber optic strain sensors have solved this temperature dependence problem, such as by the use of Fabry-Perot sensors to decouple the temperature dependent characteristic of optical fibers. However, in most cases, this is achieved at the sacrifice of multiplexing capability.
The present invention provides for temperature compensation and multiplexing capability in a single robust, hermetic sensor package. The present fiber optic sensor xe2x80x9cflatpackxe2x80x9d houses and protects two fiber optic sensors in a single pre-packaged unit, which compensates for temperature. The present flatpack simplifies the installation of sensors by field personnel by exploiting the adhesives and installation techniques used with well-established resistance strain gage technology.
The present fiber optic sensor flatpack is applicable to a diverse range of applications in defense, civil infrastructure, and industrial applications. For example, in the defense area, the technology is applicable to service life extension programs of ships and submarines. In the civil infrastructure area, the technology is applicable to monitoring the condition of bridges, dams, and highways. In the industrial area, the technology is applicable to various uses in production facilities, transportation, construction, aerospace or wherever structural integrity must be monitored.
The present fiber optic sensor flatpack relies on a number of technologies, as described below.
For example, fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) recently were developed as narrow band optical filters for the telecommunications industry, enabling the transmission of a large number of telephone calls on the same optical fiber link. This is made possible with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) using FBGs or equivalent spectral filtering technology. This WDM capability can be combined with conventional time and spatial division multiplexing schemes, based on optical switching technology, to enable literally hundreds of sensors to be multiplexed and decoded using the same hardware used to decode just a few sensors.
FBGs are fabricated by exposing a germanium doped or boron co-doped optical fiber to a periodic intensity distribution, as shown in FIG. 1. These fibers are photosensitive, in that the refractive indices thereof change when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. Because of this photosensitivity, the impinging sinusoidal intensity distribution results in a sinusoidal refractive index distribution in the fiber core. The combined effect of the periodic index distribution is the reflection of light at a very specific wavelength known as the xe2x80x9cBragg wavelength.xe2x80x9d This wavelength is predictable in terms of the mean refractive index n and the pitch of the periodicity xcex9 given by xcexB=2nxcex9.
Sensors are made from these FBGs by exploiting the characteristic that the grating pitch and refractive index are both functionally dependent on strain. Therefore, strain on and temperature of the grating causes the Bragg wavelength to shift left or right. The wavelength-encoded nature of FBGs offers the greatest potential for multiplexing these sensors in the wavelength domain along a single length of optical fiber.
Multiplexing is accomplished by producing an optical fiber with a sequence of spatially separated FBGs, each having a different pitch xcex9k, where k=1, 2, 3, . . . , N. The resulting Bragg wavelengths associated with each pitch therefore are given by xcexBk=2nxcex9k, where k=1, 2, 3, . . . , N. Because the unstrained Bragg wavelength of each FBG is different, the information from each sensor is individually determined by examining the wavelength spectrum. For example, where a strain field is uniquely encoded as a perturbation to Bragg wavelength xcexB2, at 1558 nanometers, the Bragg wavelengths associated with the other two gratings xcexB1 and xcexB3 remain unchanged.
Because both the grating pitch A and refractive index n change with temperature, the Bragg wavelength of a FBG shifts with the temperature by approximately 8 pm/xc2x0 C. This behavior makes the FBG a temperature sensor. No matter which measurand the FBG is adapted to detect, the output requires temperature compensation.
The phase mask method of FBG fabrication is an efficient, but costly method of sensor production. A discrete phase mask is required at each Bragg wavelength desired, each mask currently costing about $2,500. Due to the scale or number of sensors of typical installations, up to 40 phase masks may be required for Bragg grating fabrication, thus elevating costs prohibitively high. Consequently, the interferometric production method currently is the most efficacious sensor manufacturing method used today.
The primary advantage of interferometric sensor production over phase mask production is flexibility. A single setup can be reconfigured and adapted to produce FBGs at any desired Bragg wavelength with no material costs. A disadvantage is that setup tuning requires substantial skill and time.
The present invention exploits a process of writing two closely-spaced FBG sensors on a single fiber. This process allows for the packaging of two FBG sensors within the constraints of a flatpack sensor assembly. A key advantage to developing the present flatpack sensor packaging is that low reflectivity FBGs, on the order of 4 to 8%, can be used. This means that single shot FBGs can be written while the fiber is being manufactured. This process enables hundreds to thousands of FBGs to be written per hour at cost of a few cents per FBG.
Many competing FBG interrogation technologies exist. One commercially available FBG interrogation system relies on what is referred to as the Scanning Fabry-Perot (SFP) method. This method is suitable for DC to low frequency strain measurements. Another approach is based on an interferometric system, for high frequency strain measurements.
Referring to FIG. 2, scanning Fabry-Perot (SFP) device 15 includes two highly reflective parallel mirrors. The reflection between the two mirrors produces an optical spectrum filtering effect, which allows a narrow band of optical energy centered at a designed wavelength to pass through. SFP device 15 sweeps the spectrum position of the passing band over a certain wavelength range. Scanning is achieved by mechanically moving one of the mirrors back and forth over a short distance (less than 1 pm) using a stacked piezo-electric actuator (not shown). The voltage that drives the actuator is used as a reference of the center wavelength of the passing band. Because the relationship between the driving voltage and the spectral position of the passing band is normally nonlinear, a real-time calibration mechanism (not shown) is required to ensure scanning accuracy.
As shown in FIG. 3, the scanning range of SFP device 15 is equal to the bandwidth of the broadband optical source 20. The spectral width of the SFP passing band is much smaller than that of the FBGs in the system. Thus, when SFP device 15 scans through a full range 23, the combined reflective spectrum of Bragg gratings 25 along the fiber 30 can be constructed in a slice-by-slice fashion. The central wavelength of each grating 25 can be obtained, which permits monitoring of strain or temperature. By positioning SFP device 15 immediately after source 20, as shown in FIG. 2, multiple fibers 30 can be interrogated simultaneously.
For clarity, only two fibers 30 containing sensors 25 are shown in FIG. 2. More fibers can be accommodated in the system by adding more fiber couplers 35 and detectors 40 coupled to a processor 45, as long as there is sufficient optical power for each fiber 30. The central Bragg wavelengths of each of the FBGs along the same fiber should be diverse, while the Bragg wavelengths in different fibers can be the same.
In an interferometer based system 100, as shown in FIG. 4, light from a broad band source 105 passes through an interferometer 110 before illuminating FBGs 115, 116, 117, 118 in a sensing fiber 120. Again, central Bragg wavelengths along the same fiber must be different, but can be the same in different fibers. Light reflected from each of the FBGs 115-118 in each fiber is separated into different detection channels 125, 126, 127, 129 by a wavelength division multiplexer (WDM) 130. Through such an arrangement, one FBG 115, for example, has an associated detector 125, which measures only light reflected from the FBG 115.
In interferometer 100, the input light is split into two different optical paths and then recombined at the output 135. The intensity at the output port can be expressed as I=a+b cosxcfx86, where a and b are constants and xcfx86 is the phase difference of light in the two paths. This phase difference can be expressed as xcfx86=2xcfx80 nL/xcex, where xcex is the wavelength of the relevant light passing through interferometer and received by detectors 125-128.
In this system, xcex is the Bragg wavelength of an FBG 115-118 associated with a respective detector 125-128, n is the refractive index of the two paths and L is the difference in optical path length therebetween. When n and L are constant, a change in xcex leads to a corresponding change in phase xcfx86, which in turn produces a variation in output intensity. This intensity change is detected electronically and, through the use of an appropriate demodulation circuit, the corresponding change in the wavelength can be obtained.
Only two fiber channels are shown in FIG. 4 for clarity. More fiber channels 120 can be added to a system if there is sufficient optical power in source 105. However, each fiber 120 requires a designated interferometer 110 and WDM 130. Each FBG 115-118 requires a dedicated detector 125-128 and dedicated demodulation circuitry 135, 136, 137, 138. The Bragg wavelengths of each FBG 115-118 along the same fiber must be different and evenly distributed in accordance with the spectrum spacing of the wavelength channels in the WDM 130. The number of spectrum channels in the WDM 130 should be no less than the number of FBGs 115-118 along each fiber 120.
Due to the periodical nature of the interferometric signal, this method is only capable of tracking the relative change in Bragg wavelength, not absolute value. Thus, an interferometer based sensor system is best suited for detecting fast changing strain signals not measuring static strain value.
Although only scanning Fabry-Perot and interferometer interrogation systems are shown, other interrogation systems also may employ the flatpack of the present invention.
The most important consideration to the design of a robust fiber optic sensor package is an adequate method of decoupling the thermal characteristic of fiber Bragg gratings (FBG). Although individual FBGs provide superior sensitivity to strain measurements, they are nevertheless susceptible to the same temperature effects as conventional resistance strain gage technology and an additional thermo-optic effect. This can be seen from the following thermo-mechanical relationship for FBGs:
xcex94xcex/xcex=(1xe2x88x92Pe)(xcex5+xcex1fxcex94T)="xgr"xcex94T 
where:
xcex=Bragg wavelength;
xcex94xcex=strained wavelength shift;
Pe=strain optic coefficient;
"xgr"=thermo-optic coefficient;
xcex1f=thermal expansion coefficient of fiber;
xcex94T=temperature change; and
xcex5=mechanical strain.
The thermal sensitivity of FBGs makes FBGs good temperature sensors. However, for accurate measurement of mechanical strain, FBG output requires temperature compensation.
The Bragg wavelength of an FBG shifts with the temperature by approximately 8 pm/xc2x0 C. due to thermo-mechanical strain and approximately 30 pm/xc2x0 C. due to the thermo-optic effect.
Decoupling the effects of temperature is possible by incorporating two FBGs, one rigidly fixed relative to the structure being tested, responsive to both thermal and mechanical fields (tight FBG hereinafter), and another mechanically independent and sensitive only to the temperature of the host structure (loose FBG hereinafter). Wavelength changes in the tight and loose FBGs respectively are calculated by:
xcex94xcext/xcext=(1xe2x88x92Pe)(xcex5+(xcex1Sxe2x88x92xcex1f)xcex94T)+"xgr"xcex94T 
xcex94xcex1/xcex1=(1xe2x88x92Pe)xcex1fxcex94T)+"xgr"xcex94T 
where:
xcext=wavelength of the tight grating;
xcex1=wavelength of the loose grating; and
xcex1S=thermal expansion coefficient of host specimen material.
The loose FBG also may be rigidly attached to a predetermined carrier block or substrate. However, the loose FBG must be isolated from mechanical strains occurring on the host material to be able to decouple the temperature dependence of the governing equation. Computer processing measured data from both FBGs also can isolate the purely mechanical strains once the sensor combination has been calibrated.
Another consideration in sensor design is the capability of multiplexing numerous sensors along a single optical fiber cable. As stated earlier, this provides significant advantages in terms of flexibility, cost, and weight savings. The most prevalent method of mounting the loose FBG is to have one end of the loose FBG be severed and free, which precludes any multiplexing capability. The invention overcomes this with a ruggedized fiber optic sensor package that houses and protects both FBG sensors while providing multiplex capability, and that also facilitates installation of the sensors by field personnel.
To understand the unique applications available for the present fiber optic sensor flatpack, it is useful to understand current resistance strain gage manufacturing methods and applications. Resistance strain gages typically consist of an etched constantan alloy grid layer embedded on a thin polyimide backing, such as Kapton. The backing carries the strain sensitive constantan layer and provides electrical insulation. The geometry of the polyimide backing and adhesive layer used to bond the gage to a specimen is a critical performance characteristic.
A typical application of resistance strain gages involves the measurement of surface strains occurring on cantilever mounted beam specimens. Referring to FIG. 5a, from beam theory, a cantilever beam 300 has a unique radius of curvature R at the neutral axis, described by:
R=EI/M=c/xcex5s 
where:
E=elastic modulus;
I=area moment of inertia;
M=moment;
c=distance from neutral axis to surface; and
xcex5S=strain at surface.
As seen in FIG. 5b, a distance 305 from the neutral axis 307 of the beam 300 to a gage grid 309 is greater than a distance 310 from neutral axis 307 to the beam surface 315 by the thickness of the gage backing (not shown) and an adhesive layer 320, the difference being referred to herein as xe2x80x9coffset distance.xe2x80x9d The magnitude of the strain produced on the surface of a cantilever beam specimen normally is lower than that in the typically copper gage grid during bending, described by:
xcex5g/xcex5S=t+2tg+a/t 
where:
xcex5g=strain at gage;
t=thickness of beam; and
tg+a=thickness of backing and adhesive.
Errors associated with the offset distance can be quite significant for a thin beam or membrane. Thus, strain sensors that require high profile packaging are very susceptible to measurement errors associated with this offset distance. Most conventional resistance strain gages minimize this error by incorporating very thin plastic backing layers.
The present flatpack minimizes the offset error by incorporating thin polyimide laminate materials, yielding a strain transmission accuracy on the order of that obtainable using the most sensitive resistance strain gages.
Typically, a sensor configuration is selected such that it will not fail before the host material. This is to assure data acquisition after the host material undergoes plastic deformation and begins to approach its ultimate strain before fracture.
Non-reinforced polyimide film backing layers of conventional resistance strain gage can withstand up to 20% elongation before fracture. In comparison, the ultimate strain of typical communications grade optical fiber is 5% elongation, comparable to typical resistance strain gages, yet should be adequate for strains well within the plastic region of most host materials.
Endurance to temperature variations also is an important consideration. Although thermoplastics typically cannot withstand the same high temperatures as metals, they are nevertheless extremely durable. Polyimide can retain a modulus of elasticity up to 260xc2x0 C. (500xc2x0 F.). Polyimide also has dimensional stability and creep resistance, even at high temperatures and under extreme loads, that are among the best of the thermoplastics.
Resistance strain gages are selected to match the thermal expansion coefficient of the host material for achieving the most accurate strain measurements. This is achieved by selecting various combinations of backing and sensor grid materials in the manufacture of the resistance strain gage. In addition, large differences in thermal coefficients of expansion for the grid, backing, specimen materials and the adhesive could cause large shear stresses to be generated which could cause eventual shearing of the sensor from the specimen. The selection criteria of an appropriate resistance strain gage and adhesive for a particular application thus is an involved process.
Another critical consideration is to achieve accurate transmission of thermal fields to the FBGs. This requires that the carrier be as thermally conductive as possible. Unlike metals, most thermoplastics are poor heat conductors. However, the thermal insulating qualities of thermoplastics are negligible provided they are as thin as possible. The best configuration is one that allows the FBGs to contact or be as close as possible to the specimen to be measured.
Corrosion is a very complex phenomenon, and is inevitable in most sensor designs incorporating ferrous materials. Furthermore, corrosion is sometimes impossible to characterize, since even small changes in temperature, solution concentrations, or stray electric currents can drastically change corrosive rates. In particular, galvanic corrosion is commonly found with weldable resistance strain gages, where adjoining carrier and host structures consist of dissimilar metals. Although thermoplastic materials may appear to be less susceptible to this phenomenon, they may allow corrosive elements to permeate through to components that are sensitive to effects such as stress corrosion cracking. Copper alloys typically have lower fatigue limits than either steels or plastics. Thus, polyimide films seem to be advantageous even in high fatigue and chemical environments.
The present flatpack may have a polyamide substrate, which may be adhered to a host structure, or a metal substrate, which may be welded to the host structure. Adhering the present flatpack to a host structure requires consideration of many factors. Current lifespan projections, according to limited data, indicate that the adhesive is the limiting value to operational longevity of resistance strain gages, which is approximately two years with conventional adhesives. Weldable strain gages commonly are selected for use in harsh environments. However, welding is less favorable than conventional adhesives, based on field implementation issues as well as corrosive effects. Nevertheless, even with existing weldable strain gages, environmentally resistant adhesives to secure resistance strain gages to weldable steel carriers is preferred.
Hot curing adhesives also are commonly used to mount strain gages. However, high residual compression strains can occur when the specimens are allowed to cool after the adhesive is heat cured at elevated temperatures. Of commercially available adhesives, two-part, room temperature curing epoxy adhesives, such as Micro-Measurements AE-10, seem to be the most promising. The environmental endurance of epoxy adhesives also is applicable to fiber optic sensors.
In view of the above, the invention provides a strain sensor including a fiber having a first grating and a second grating wherein, when the strain sensor defines an unstrained configuration, the first grating is in tension and the second grating is not in tension. The invention also provides a method of measuring strain with an optical fiber by transferring stress to a first grating in the fiber, isolating a second grating in the fiber from the stress and modifying a strain value obtained from the first grating by a second apparent strain value obtained from the second grating.
Other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments, which refers to the accompanying drawings.